Creatine Monohydrate
Strong EvidenceThe most effective ergogenic nutritional supplement currently available to athletes — ISSN Position Stand.
Not medical advice
Nutripedia summarises published peer-reviewed research. This content is for informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified healthcare professional before taking any supplement.
One of the most extensively studied supplements in sports nutrition, with a 30+ year evidence base. Increases phosphocreatine stores to enhance ATP regeneration during high-intensity exercise. The ISSN, ACSM, and AIS all recommend creatine monohydrate as the gold standard form.
Grade A evidence for strength and anaerobic performance. Excellent 30-year safety profile. The most cost-effective sports supplement available.
Bulk — Creatine Monohydrate Powder
Powder · 100 servings
Muscle Strength
22 studies · 1,497 participants
Anaerobic Performance
15 studies · 890 participants
Muscle Hypertrophy
10 studies · 424 participants
What the evidence shows
Extensive research supports creatine monohydrate for enhancing high-intensity exercise capacity, increasing lean body mass, and its general safety profile.
Creatine monohydrate is considered the most effective ergogenic nutritional supplement for increasing high-intensity exercise capacity and lean body mass.
Kreider et al. 2017, position-stand
Combined with resistance training, creatine supplementation significantly increased muscle strength in adults under 50, with males showing greater gains than females.
Wang et al. 2024, meta-analysis
Creatine supplementation alongside resistance training has been shown to increase lean body mass by approximately 1.1 kg and reduce body fat percentage by 0.88%.
Desai et al. 2024, meta-analysis; Delpino et al. 2022, meta-analysis
In older adults, creatine supplementation combined with exercise training significantly improves 1RM muscle strength and reduces body fat percentage.
Sharifian et al. 2025, meta-analysis
Creatine supplementation has been shown to enhance memory performance, particularly in older adults, though overall cognitive function improvements are not consistently established.
Prokopidis et al. 2023, meta-analysis; EFSA Panel 2024, regulatory
Studies indicate that creatine supplementation in healthy individuals leads to a transient, modest increase in serum creatinine but does not impair kidney function.
Kabiri Naeini et al. 2025, meta-analysis
The Evidence
14 peer-reviewed papers, updated 3 weeks ago
11 meta-analyses · 1 systematic review · 1 position stand · 1 regulatory document
Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Elham Kabiri Naeini, Milad Eskandari, Mojgan Mortazavi et al.
BMC Nephrology
Creatine supplementation produced a modest, transient increase in serum creatinine (MD 0.07 µmol/L), attributable to metabolic turnover rather than renal impairment. No significant changes in glomerular filtration rate were observed, indicating kidney function is preserved during supplementation in healthy individuals.
Creatine supplementation for treating symptoms of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Igor Eckert, Júlia Lima, Andressa Amaral Dariva
British Journal of Nutrition
Across 11 RCTs (1093 participants), creatine showed a small-to-moderate effect on depression symptoms (SMD −0.34) and significantly improved remission rates, but average effects were not clinically important and evidence certainty was rated very low by GRADE. Larger rigorous trials are required before conclusions can be drawn.
Impact of creatine supplementation and exercise training in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Ghazal Sharifian, Parastou Aseminia, Diako Heidary et al.
European Review of Aging and Physical Activity
Combining exercise training with creatine supplementation significantly improves 1RM muscle strength (MD 2.12 kg) and reduces body fat percentage in older adults. No meaningful effect on bone mineral density was observed. More research is needed on long-term skeletal outcomes.
Creatine and improvement in cognitive function: Evaluation of a health claim pursuant to article 13(5) of regulation (EC) No 1924/2006
EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Dominique Turck et al.
EFSA Journal
The EFSA NDA Panel concluded that a cause-and-effect relationship between creatine supplementation and improvement in cognitive function has not been established. While acute effects on working memory were observed at 20 g/day, effects were not consistent at lower doses or with sustained 5 g/day intake.
Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training on Muscle Strength Gains in Adults <50 Years of Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Ziyu Wang, Bopeng Qiu, Ruoling Li et al.
Nutrients
Creatine supplementation combined with resistance training significantly increased upper-body (WMD 4.43 kg) and lower-body strength in adults under 50 compared to placebo. Males showed greater strength gains than females; female-only data were limited.
The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Resistance Training-Based Changes to Body Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Imtiaz Desai, Michael A Wewege, Matthew D Jones et al.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Creatine supplementation combined with resistance training increased lean body mass by 1.14 kg and reduced body fat percentage by 0.88% compared to resistance training alone. A daily dose of approximately 7 g or 0.3 g/kg was identified as likely effective for body composition improvements in adults under 50.
The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chen Xu, Siyuan Bi, Wenxin Zhang et al.
Frontiers in Nutrition
Creatine monohydrate supplementation may confer beneficial effects on cognitive function in adults, particularly in memory, attention time, and processing speed. No significant improvement was found for overall cognitive function or executive function. Larger trials are needed to validate findings.
Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis
Fereshteh Pashayee-Khamene, Zeinab Heidari, Omid Asbaghi et al.
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
Across 143 RCTs, creatine supplementation produced small but significant increases in body mass (WMD 0.86 kg) and fat-free mass (WMD 0.82 kg) while reducing body fat percentage (WMD −0.28%). Effects were greatest when combined with resistance training using creatine monohydrate at a maintenance dose.
The Effects of Creatine Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training on Regional Measures of Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
Ryan Burke, Alec Piñero, Max Coleman et al.
Nutrients
Across 10 RCTs, creatine supplementation combined with resistance training produced a small but statistically significant increase in regional skeletal muscle hypertrophy (SMD 0.11) in both upper and lower body. Practical significance is modest, with absolute gains of approximately 0.10–0.16 cm in muscle thickness.
Effects of Creatine Monohydrate on Endurance Performance in a Trained Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Julen Fernández-Landa, Asier Santibañez-Gutierrez, Nikola Todorovic et al.
Sports Medicine
Creatine monohydrate supplementation was ineffective for improving endurance performance in trained populations. Pooled results showed a negligible, non-significant negative effect (p = 0.47), suggesting creatine's ergogenic benefits do not extend to aerobic endurance tasks.
Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Konstantinos Prokopidis, Panagiotis Giannos, Konstantinos K Triantafyllidis et al.
Nutrition Reviews
Creatine supplementation significantly enhanced memory performance compared to placebo across eight RCTs, with particularly pronounced benefits in older adults aged 66–76. Younger populations showed smaller but positive effects on memory measures.
Influence of age, sex, and type of exercise on the efficacy of creatine supplementation on lean body mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials
Felipe M Delpino, Lílian M Figueiredo, Scott C Forbes et al.
Nutrition
Creatine combined with resistance training increased lean body mass by 1.1 kg across young, middle-aged, and older adults (35 RCTs, 1192 participants). Males experienced greater LBM gains than females. Creatine without exercise was ineffective for lean mass accrual.
Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?
Jose Antonio, Darren G Candow, Scott C Forbes et al.
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
Creatine monohydrate supplementation is safe and well-tolerated at recommended dosages (3–5 g/day or 0.1 g/kg/day). Evidence does not support concerns over water retention causing fat gain, kidney damage, hair loss, dehydration, or muscle cramping in healthy populations across the lifespan.
International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine
Richard B Kreider, Douglas S Kalman, Jose Antonio et al.
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
Creatine monohydrate is the most effective ergogenic nutritional supplement for increasing high-intensity exercise capacity and lean body mass. Short- and long-term supplementation (up to 30 g/day for 5 years) is safe and well-tolerated in healthy individuals and clinical populations ranging from infants to the elderly.
Evidence Database
Click any row to explore the studies behind each health outcome. Grades reflect the volume and quality of published research, not a recommendation.
| Grade | Health Outcome | |
|---|---|---|
| A | Muscle Strength22 studies | |
| A | Anaerobic Performance15 studies | |
| B | Muscle Hypertrophy10 studies | |
| B | Muscle Recovery8 studies | |
| C | Cognitive Function16 studies | |
| D | Endurance Performance12 studies |
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What it is
Creatine monohydrate (CrM) is a nitrogenous organic acid naturally synthesised in the body from amino acids such as glycine, arginine, and methionine. It is predominantly stored in skeletal muscles, where approximately 95% of the body's creatine resides, primarily as phosphocreatine. Phosphocreatine plays a crucial role in rapidly regenerating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during short bursts of high-intensity physical activity, providing an immediate energy source for muscle contractions. Creatine monohydrate is widely studied, with over 700 peer-reviewed studies supporting its use. It exhibits near-complete intestinal absorption, and scientific evidence indicates that no other form of creatine has demonstrated superior efficacy compared to monohydrate.
How it works
Creatine's primary mechanism of action involves its role in the phosphocreatine energy system. When muscles perform high-intensity, short-duration activities, the demand for energy (ATP) rapidly increases. ATP is broken down to ADP (adenosine diphosphate), releasing energy. Phosphocreatine donates a phosphate group to ADP, quickly regenerating ATP. This process allows muscles to sustain high-power output for longer periods than would otherwise be possible, delaying fatigue and enhancing performance during activities like weightlifting or sprinting. Creatine supplementation increases the body's phosphocreatine stores, thereby enhancing this rapid ATP regeneration capacity.
General Information
Dosage (Evidence-Reported)
These figures reflect what clinical studies used — not personalised recommendations.
Safety Notes
- Transient weight gain of 1–3 kg from water retention during loading phase
- GI discomfort at single doses >10 g — split doses to ≤5 g
- Raises serum creatinine — inform GP before kidney function tests
- Not recommended for pre-existing kidney disease
- Case reports of manic episodes in bipolar disorder (2 patients)
Key Benefits
- Significant strength and power gains — the single most effective legal ergogenic aid
- Enhances muscle recovery after intense training (reduced damage markers at 48–90h)
- May improve memory and processing speed under cognitive stress
- Significant strength gains in older adults (>55) with 12+ weeks of use
- Excellent 30-year safety profile — no clinically significant adverse effects
Quick Facts
Legal food supplement (UK). No prescription required. EFSA-approved health claims for physical performance at ≥3g/day.
Frequently Asked Questions
Nutripedia is an educational resource. Content is sourced from peer-reviewed studies and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a healthcare professional before starting any supplement.